Cyberbullying and Autistic Traits Across STEM and Non-STEM Professions

Bojana B. Arsić

doi:10.5937/zrffp55-59924

Bojana B. Arsić University of Belgrade, Faculty of Special Education and Rehabilitation https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6728-3779

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5937/zrffp55-59924

Keywords: cyberbullying, victimisation, autism, occupation

Abstract

Autistic traits occur in the general population and are often linked with a preference for STEM fields. These individuals may also be more vulnerable to cyberbullying. The aim of the study was to determine whether participants engaged in STEM— Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics—occupations and those not engaged in these fields differ regarding cyberbullying and the presence of autistic traits. The study included 206 participants, of whom 92 belonged to the subgroup engaged in STEM occupations (44.7%), and 114 belonged to the subgroup engaged in other occupations (55.3%). Data were collected on participants’ experience of/involvement in cyberbullying, cyber victimization, and the presence of autistic traits. Our study found that individuals engaged in STEM occupations are more often both victims and perpetrators of cyberbullying, and have higher autistic traits than individuals in other occupations. Individuals with autistic traits are more frequently victims of cyberbullying (rs = .18, p = .01). In the subgroup not engaged in STEM occupations, females (U = 948.50, p = .01) and participants aged 25–39 years (H = 9.20, df = 3, p = .03) are more often victims of cyberbullying, whereas males are more often perpetrators of cyberbullying (U = 537.00, p < .001). Males not engaged in STEM occupations have a higher degree of autistic traits compared to females (U = 783.00, p = .009). In conclusion, we highlight the limitations of the conducted research and provide recommendations for future researchers in this field.

References

Akturk, A. O. (2015). Analysis of cyberbullying sensitivity levels of high school students and their perceived social support levels. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 12(1), 44–61. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-07-2014-0016

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Austin, E. J. (2005). Personality correlates of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Personality and Individual Differences, 38(2), 451–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.04.022

Ayas, T., & Horzum, M. B. (2010). Cyber Bully/Victim Scale development study. Akademik Bakıs, 19, 1–17.

Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). Autism: The Empathizing-Systemizing (E-S) theory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156(1), 68–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04467.x

Baron-Cohen, S., Cassidy, S., Auyeung, B., Allison, C., Achoukhi, M., Robertson, S., Pohl, A., & Lai, M. C. (2014). Attenuation of typical sex differences in 800 adults with autism vs. 3,900 controls. PLoS One, 9(7), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102251

Baron-Cohen, S., Hoekstra, R. A., Knickmeyer, R., & Wheelwright, S. (2006). The AutismSpectrum Quotient (AQ)—adolescent version. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(3), 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0073-6

Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Burtenshaw, A., & Hobson, E. (2007). Mathematical talent is linked to autism. Human Nature, 18(2), 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-007-9014-0

Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The AutismSpectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005653411471

Best, P., Manktelow, R., & Taylor, B. (2014). Online communication, social media and adolescent wellbeing: A systematic narrative review. Children and Youth Services Review, 41(2), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.001

Beyazit, U., Şimşek, Ş., & Ayhan, A. B. (2017). An examination of the predictive factors of cyberbullying in adolescents. Social Behavior and Personality, 45(9), 1511–1522. https://doi.org/10.2224/SBP.6267

Bishop, D. V., Maybery, M., Maley, A., Wong, D., Hill, W., & Hallmayer, J. (2004). Using self‐report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: A study using the Autism‐Spectrum Quotient. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1431–1436. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7610.2004.00325.X

Carter, J. M., & Wilson, F. L. (2015). Cyberbullying: A 21st century health care phenomenon. Pediatric Nursing, 41(3) 115–125.

Chi, P. T. L., Lan, V. T. H., Ngan, N. H., & Linh, N. T. (2020). Online time, experience of cyber bullying and practices to cope with it among high school students in Hanoi. Health Psychology Open, 7(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102920935747

Cho, Y. K., & Yoo, J. W. (2017). Cyberbullying, internet and SNS usage types, and perceived social support: A comparison of different age groups. Information, Communication & Society, 20(10), 1464–1481. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1228998

Chu, X., Li, Y., Wang, P., Zeng, P., & Lei, L. (2021). Social support and cyberbullying for university students: The mediating role of internet addiction and the moderating role of stress. Current Psychology, 1(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01607-9

Constantino, J. N. (2011). The quantitative nature of autistic social impairment. Pediatric Research, 69(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1203/pdr.0b013e318212ec6e

Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2003). Autistic traits in the general population: A twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 524–530. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.5.524

Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of subthreshold autistic traits in the general population. Biological Psychiatry, 57(6), 655–660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.12.014

Constantino, J. N., Lajonchere, C., & Lutz, M. (2006). Autistic social impairment in the siblings of children with pervasive developmental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(2), 294–296. https://doi.org/10.1176/APPI.AJP.163.2.294

Diamanduros, T., Downs, E., & Jenkins, S. J. (2008). The role of school psychologists in the assessment, prevention, and intervention of cyberbullying. Psychology in Schools, 45(1), 693–704. https://doi.org/10.1002/PITS.20335

Dymond, S. K., Meadan, H., & Pickens, J. L. (2017). Postsecondary education and students with autism spectrum disorders: Experiences of parents and university personnel. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 29(5), 809–825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-017-9558-9

Finn, J. (2004). A survey of online harassment at a university campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(1), 468–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503262083

Fombonne, E. (2009). Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatric Research, 65(6), 591–598. https://doi. org/10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203

Gini, G., & Espelage, D. L. (2014). Peer victimization, cyberbullying, and suicide risk in children and adolescents. Jama, 312(5), 545–546. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.3212

Görzig, A., & Frumkin, L. A. (2013). Cyberbullying experiences on-the-go: When social media can become distressing. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 7(1), 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/CP2013-1-4

Greenberg, D. M., Warrier, V., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2018). Testing the Empathizing-Systemizing theory of sex differences and the Extreme Male Brain theory of autism in half a million people. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(48), 12152–12157. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.181103211

Griffiths, A. J., Nash, A. M., Maupin, Z. D., Delgado, R., & Mathur, S. K. (2022). Creating Career Opportunities for Women with Autism in STEM. In: A. E. Hurley-Hanson & C. M. Giannantonio (Eds.), Generation A: Perspectives on Special Populations and International Research on Autism in the Workplace (pp. 3–21). Emerald Publishing Limited.

Happé, F., & Ronald, A. (2008). The ‘fractionable autism triad’: A review of evidence from behavioral, genetic, cognitive and neural research. Neuropsychology Review, 18(4), 287–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8

Hayward, S. M., McVilly, K. R., & Stokes, M. A. (2018). Challenges for females with high functioning autism in the workplace: A systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation, 40(3), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1254284

Heiman, T., Olenik-Shemesh, D., & Eden, S. (2015). Cyberbullying involvement among students with ADHD: Relation to loneliness, self-efficacy and social support. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 30(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2014.943562

Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. (2007). Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29(2), 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701457816

Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2009). Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.

Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Cath, D. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2008). Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): A study in Dutch population and patient groups. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), 1555–1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0538-x

Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Verweij, C. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007). Heritability of autistic traits in the general population. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161(4), 372–377. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.4.372

Hurst, R., Nelson-Gray, R., Mitchell, J., & Kwapil, T. (2007). The relationship of Asperger’s characteristics and schizotypal personality traits in a non-clinical adult sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1711–1720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0302-z

Jackson, S. L. J., Hart, L., Brown, J. T., & Volkmar, F. R. (2018). Brief report: Self-reported academic, social, and mental health experiences of post-secondary students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(3), 643–650. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3315-x

Jiménez, R. (2019). Multiple victimization (bullying and cyberbullying) in primary education in Spain from a gender perspective. Multidisciplinary Journal of Educational Research, 9(2), 169–193. https://doi.org/10.17583/remie.2019.4272

Josey, S. B. (2022). Autistic Traits among Engineers of the Nuclear Industry: Prevalence and Propensities (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Tarleton State University.

Kowalski, R. M., Toth, A., & Morgan, M. (2018). Bullying and cyberbullying in adulthood and the workplace. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(1), 64–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2017.1302402

Lee, C., & Shin, N. (2017). Prevalence of cyberbullying and predictors of cyberbullying perpetration among Korean adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 68(2), 352–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.047

Lepage, J.-F., Lortie, M., Taschereau-Dumouchel, V., & Théoret, H. (2009). Validation of French-Canadian versions of the Empathy Quotient and Autism Spectrum Quotient. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 41(4), 272–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016248

Li, Q., Smith, P. K., & Cross, D. (2012). Research into cyberbullying. In: Q. Li, D. Cross, & P. K. Smith (Eds.). Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives (pp. 3–12). Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119954484

Lim, A., Brewer, N., & Young, R. L. (2021). Revisiting the relationship between cybercrime, autistic traits, and autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05207-1

Mishna, F., Cook, C., Gadalla, T., Daciuk, J., & Solomon, S. (2010). Cyber bullying behaviors among middle and high school students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(3), 362–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01040.x

Mishna, F., Khoury-Kassabri, M., Gadalla, T., & Daciuk, J. (2012). Risk factors for involvement in cyberbullying: Victims, bullies and bully-victims. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHILDYOUTH.2011.08.032

Paez, G. R. (2018). Cyberbullying among adolescents: A general strain theory perspective. Journal of School Violence, 17(1), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2 016.1220317

Patchin, J., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the school yard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2), 148–169. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/1541204006286288

Pisula, E., Kawa, R., Szostakiewicz, Ł., Łucka, I., Kawa, M., & Rynkiewicz, A. (2013). Autistic traits in male and female students and individuals with high functioning autism spectrum disorders measured by the Polish version of the Autism Spectrum Quotient. PLoS One, 8(9), e75236. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075236

Raskauskas, J., & Stoltz, A. D. (2007). Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43(3), 564–575. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.564

Richards, G., Baron-Cohen, S., Stokes, H., Warrier, V., Mellor, B., Winspear, E., & Galvin, J. (2020). Assortative mating, autistic traits, empathizing, and systemizing. The Preprint Server for Biology—BioRxiv, 1(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.28.358895

Richards, G., Baron-Cohen, S., Warrier, V., Mellor, B., Davies, J., Gee, L., & Galvin, J. (2022). Evidence of partner similarity for autistic traits, systemizing, and theory of mind via facial expressions. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11592-z

Robertson, A. E., & Simmons, D. R. (2013). The relationship between sensory sensitivity and autistic traits in the general population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(4), 775–784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1608-7

Roelfsema, M. T., Hoekstra, R. A., Allison, C., Wheelwright, S., Brayne, C., & Matthews, F. E. (2012). Are autism spectrum conditions more prevalent in an information-technology region? A school-based study of three regions in the Netherlands. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(1), 734–739. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1302-1

Ruzich, E., Allison, C., Chakrabarti, B., Smith, P., Musto, H., Ring, H., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2015a). Sex and STEM occupation predict Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores in half a million people. PLoS One, 10(10), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141229

Ruzich, E., Allison, C., Smith, P., Watson, P., Auyeung, B., Ring, H., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2015b). Measuring autistic traits in the general population: A systematic review of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a nonclinical population sample of 6,900 typical adult males and females. Molecular Autism, 6(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/2040-2392-6-2

Schrock, A., & Boyd, D. (2008). Online Threats to Youth: Solicitation, Harassment, and Problematic Content: Literature Review Prepared for the Internet Safety Technical Task Force. http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/RAB_Lit_Review_121808_0.pdf

Ševčíková, A., Macháčková, H., Wright, M. F., Dědková, L., & Černá, A. (2015). Social support seeking in relation to parental attachment and peer relationships among victims of cyberbullying. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 25(2), 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2015.1

Shariff, S., & Johnny, L. (2007). Cyber-libel and cyber bullying: Can schools protect student reputations and free expression in virtual environments? McGill Journal of Education, 16(1), 307–342.

Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact on secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(1), 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x

Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(1), 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.014

Turner, E., Aitken, E., & Richards, G. (2021). Autistic traits, STEM, and medicine: Autism Spectrum Quotient scores predict medical students’ career specialty preferences. SAGE Open, 11(4), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211050389

Twyman, K., Saylor, C., Taylor, L. A., & Comeaux, C. (2010). Comparing children and adolescents engaged in cyberbullying to matched peers. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 13(2), 195–199. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2009.0137

Wakabayashi, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Tojo, Y. (2006). The AutismSpectrum Quotient (AQ) in Japan: A cross cultural comparison. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(2), 263–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-0061-2

Wei, X., Christiano, E. R. A., Yu, J. W., Blackorby, J., Shattuck, P., & Newman, L. A. (2014). Postsecondary pathways and persistence for STEM and non-STEM majors: Among college students with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(5), 1159–1167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1978-5

Wei, X., Yu, J. W., Shattuck, P., & Blackorby, J. (2017). High school math and science preparation and postsecondary STEM participation for students with an autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 32(2), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357615588489

Wei, X., Yu, J. W., Shattuck, P., McCracken, M., & Blackorby, J. (2013). Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) participation among college students with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1539–1546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1700-z

Willard, N. (2004). An Educator’s Guide to Cyberbullying, Cyberthreats and Sexting. https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.safestates.org/resource/resmgr/imported/educatorsguide.pdf

Williams, K., & Guerra, N. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of Internet bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 1(1), 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JADOHEALTH.2007.08.018

Woodbury-Smith, M. R., Robinson, J., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). Screening adults for Asperger syndrome using the AQ: A preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(3), 331–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-3300-7

Yao, M., Chelmis, C., & Zois, D. S. (2019). Cyberbullying ends here: Towards robust detection of cyberbullying in social media. In: The World Wide Web Conference (pp. 3427–3433). New York: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3308558.3313462

Ybarra, M., & Mitchell, J. (2007). Prevalence and frequency of Internet harassment instigation: Implications for adolescent health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(1), 189–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JADOHEALTH.2007.03.005

Zalaquett, C. P., & Chatters, S. J. (2014). Cyberbullying in college: Frequency, characteristics, and practical implications. Sage Open, 4(1), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014526721