Psychometric Validation of the Passive and Active Use Measure (PAUM) for Facebook and Instagram among a Portuguese Sample
Keywords:
social media, Instagram, Facebook, active use,, passive use, Portuguese sample
Abstract
Introduction. The advent of social media has fundamentally transformed how people interact, bridging the divide between passive digital consumption and active engagement. Objective. This study aims to validate the Passive and Active Use Measure (PAUM) for Facebook and Instagram in a Portuguese sample, exploring distinct interaction modes encompassing Active Social, Active Non-social, Active, and Passive. Methods. Two descriptive, cross-sectional, and quantitative studies were conducted, involving a total of 606 participants (N=198 for study 1, N=408 for study 2), spanning ages 17 to 67. Results. The factor structure of both scales was analyzed, as well as their convergent and discriminant validity and reliability. Both scales–PAUM-Facebook (study 1) and PAUM-Instagram (study 2)–demonstrated robust factorial structures, underscored by sound validity and reliability indicators. Comprising ten and seven items, respectively, these scales are organized into two dimensions: Active and Passive. Conclusion. This study establishes that the PAUM instruments possess strong psychometric properties, rendering them valuable tools for evaluating Facebook and Instagram usage patterns in Portuguese populations, with broader applicability in future research within the field of psychology.
References
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Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., Shablack, H., Jonides, J., & Ybarra, O. (2013). Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PloS one, 8(8), e69841, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841
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Naslund, J. A., Bondre, A., Torous, J., & Aschbrenner, K. A. (2020). Social media and mental health: Benefits, risks, and opportunities for research and practice. Journal of technology in behavioral science, 5(3), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-020-00134-x
Pittman, M., & Reich, B. (2016). Social media and loneliness: Why an Instagram picture may be worth more than a thousand Twitter words. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 155-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.084
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
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Statista Search Department (2022b, August 3rd). Instagram: number of global users 2020-2025. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/183585/instagram-number-of-global-users/
Thorisdottir, I. E., Sigurvinsdottir, R., Asgeirsdottir, B. B., Allegrante, J. P., & Sigfusdottir, I. D. (2019). Active and passive social media use and symptoms of anxiety and depressed mood among icelandic adolescents. Cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking, 22(8), 535–542. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0079
Trifiro, B. (2018). Instagram Use and Its Effect on Well-Being and Self-Esteem [Unpublished master dissertation]. Bryant University
Trifiro, B. M., & Gerson, J. (2019). Social media usage patterns: Research Note regarding the lack of universal validated Measures for Active and Passive Use. Social Media + Society, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119848743
Trifiro, B. M., & Prena, K. (2021). Active Instagram use and its association with self-esteem and well-being. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 2(3), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000043
Ulvi, O., Karamehic-Muratovic, A., Baghbanzadeh, M., Bashir, A., Smith, J., Haque, U. (2022). Social media use and mental health: A global analysis. Epidemiologia, 3, 11–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/epidemiologia3010002
Valkenburg P. M. (2022). Social media use and well-being: What we know and what we need to know. Current opinion in psychology, 45, 101294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.12.006
Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2017). Social Media. In P. M. Valkenburg, & J. T. Piotrowski (Eds.), Plugged in: How media attract and affect youth (pp. 218-243). Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300228090-014
Valkenburg, P. M., van Driel, I. I., & Beyens, I. (2022). The associations of active and passive social media use with well-being: A critical scoping review. New media & society, 24(2), 530-549. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211065425
Verduyn, P., Gugushvili, N., & Kross, E. (2021). The impact of social network sites on mental health: distinguishing active from passive use. World psychiatry: official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 20(1), 133–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20820
Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., Ybarra, O., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of experimental psychology: General, 144(2), 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057
Verduyn, P., Ybarra, O., Résibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2017). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well‐being? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review, 11(1), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033
Bolaños-Medina, A., & González-Ruiz, V. (2012). Deconstructing the translation of psychological tests. Meta, 57(3), 715-739. https://doi.org/10.7202/1017088ar
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables (Vol. 210). John Wiley & Sons.
Brandtzæg, P.B. (2016). The Social Media Natives. In E. Elstad (Eds.), Digital Expectations and Experiences in Education (pp. 149-162). Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-648-4_9
Carr, C.T., & Hayes, R.A. (2015). Social Media: Defining, developing, and divining. atlantic. Journal of Communication, 23(1), 46-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.972282
Choi, J. (2022). Do Facebook and Instagram differ in their influence on life satisfaction? A study of college men and women in South Korea. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 16(1), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2022-1-2
Coyne, S.M., Rogers, A.A., Zurcher, J.D., Stockdale, L.A., & Booth, M. (2020). Does time spent using social media impact mental health?: An eight year longitudinal study. Computers in Human Behavior, 104, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106160
de Vries, D. A., Möller, A. M., Wieringa, M. S., Eigenraam, A. W., & Hamelink, K. (2018). Social comparison as the thief of joy: Emotional consequences of viewing strangers’ Instagram posts. Media Psychology, 21(2), 222–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2016.1267647
Escobar-Viera, C. G., Shensa, A., Bowman, N. D., Sidani, J. E., Knight, J., James, A. E., & Primack, B. A. (2018). Passive and active social media use and depressive symptoms among United States adults. Cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking, 21(7), 437–443. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2017.0668
Eurostat. (2020). Are you using social networks? (EDN-20200630-2). Eurostat News. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-eurostat-news/-/edn-20200630-2
Field, A. P. (2017). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics (5th ed.). Sage.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Fuller, C. M., Simmering, M. J., Atinc, G., Atinc, Y., & Babin, B. J. (2016). Common methods variance detection in business research. Journal of Business Research, 69(8), 3192-3198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.12.008
Gerson, J., Plagnol, A. C., & Corr, P. J. (2017). Passive and Active Facebook Use Measure (PAUM): Validation and relationship to the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 117, 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.05.034
Grupo Marktest. (2021). Os Portugueses e as Redes Sociais 2021: Análise sobre o comportamento dos portugueses nas redes sociais. Grupo Marktest. Retrieved August 2, 2022, from https://www.marktest.com/wap/a/grp/p~96.aspx
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Instituto Nacional de Estatística. (2019). Inquérito à utilização de tecnologias da informação e da comunicação pelas famílias 2019 [Press release]. https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_destaques&DESTAQUESdest_boui=354447559&DESTAQUESmodo=2&xlang=pt
Karim, F., Oyewande, A. A., Abdalla, L. F., Chaudhry Ehsanullah, R., & Khan, S. (2020). Social media use and its connection to mental health: A systematic review. Cureus, 12(6), e8627. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8627
Kingsbury, M., Reme, B.-A., Skogen, J. C., Sivertsen, B., Øverland, S., Cantor, N., Hysing, M., Petrie, K., & Colman, I. (2021). Differential associations between types of social media use and university students’ non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior. Computers in Human Behavior, 115, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106614
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). Guildford Press
Krasnova, H., Wenninger, H., Widjaja, T., & Buxmann, P. (2013). Envy on Facebook: A hidden threat to users’ life satisfaction? Wirtschaftsinformatik Proceedings 2013, 92, 1-16. https://aisel.aisnet.org/wi2013/92/
Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., Shablack, H., Jonides, J., & Ybarra, O. (2013). Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PloS one, 8(8), e69841, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841
Liu, D., Baumeister, R. F., Yang, C.-C., & Hu, B. (2019). Digital communication media use and psychological well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 24(5), 259-273. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmz013
Masciantonio, A., Bourguignon, D., Bouchat, P., Balty, M., & Rimé, B. (2021). Don't put all social network sites in one basket: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok, and their relations with well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. PloS one, 16(3), e0248384, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248384
Naslund, J. A., Bondre, A., Torous, J., & Aschbrenner, K. A. (2020). Social media and mental health: Benefits, risks, and opportunities for research and practice. Journal of technology in behavioral science, 5(3), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-020-00134-x
Pittman, M., & Reich, B. (2016). Social media and loneliness: Why an Instagram picture may be worth more than a thousand Twitter words. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 155-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.084
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Statista Search Department (2022a, August 3rd). Facebook: number of monthly active users worldwide 2008-2022. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-active-facebook-users-worldwide/
Statista Search Department (2022b, August 3rd). Instagram: number of global users 2020-2025. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/183585/instagram-number-of-global-users/
Thorisdottir, I. E., Sigurvinsdottir, R., Asgeirsdottir, B. B., Allegrante, J. P., & Sigfusdottir, I. D. (2019). Active and passive social media use and symptoms of anxiety and depressed mood among icelandic adolescents. Cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking, 22(8), 535–542. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0079
Trifiro, B. (2018). Instagram Use and Its Effect on Well-Being and Self-Esteem [Unpublished master dissertation]. Bryant University
Trifiro, B. M., & Gerson, J. (2019). Social media usage patterns: Research Note regarding the lack of universal validated Measures for Active and Passive Use. Social Media + Society, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119848743
Trifiro, B. M., & Prena, K. (2021). Active Instagram use and its association with self-esteem and well-being. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 2(3), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000043
Ulvi, O., Karamehic-Muratovic, A., Baghbanzadeh, M., Bashir, A., Smith, J., Haque, U. (2022). Social media use and mental health: A global analysis. Epidemiologia, 3, 11–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/epidemiologia3010002
Valkenburg P. M. (2022). Social media use and well-being: What we know and what we need to know. Current opinion in psychology, 45, 101294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.12.006
Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2017). Social Media. In P. M. Valkenburg, & J. T. Piotrowski (Eds.), Plugged in: How media attract and affect youth (pp. 218-243). Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300228090-014
Valkenburg, P. M., van Driel, I. I., & Beyens, I. (2022). The associations of active and passive social media use with well-being: A critical scoping review. New media & society, 24(2), 530-549. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211065425
Verduyn, P., Gugushvili, N., & Kross, E. (2021). The impact of social network sites on mental health: distinguishing active from passive use. World psychiatry: official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 20(1), 133–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20820
Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., Ybarra, O., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of experimental psychology: General, 144(2), 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057
Verduyn, P., Ybarra, O., Résibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2017). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well‐being? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review, 11(1), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033
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2025/03/12
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