Emerging Biomaterial Strategies for Giant Cell Arteritis: Challenges and Future Outlook
Abstract
Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common vasculitis of the big arteries that affects people as they get older and it usually results in potentially serious problems like vision loss and stroke. Steroids remain the cornerstone of GCA treatment, although long-term steroid use is associated with significant adverse effects and a high chance of recurrence. This review will look at biomaterials as a new treatment technique that could help improve GCA management through focused therapy, reduced systemic side effects and facilitated vascular restoration. A comprehensive evaluation of current breakthroughs in biomaterial-based GCA techniques was carried out, with an emphasis on nanoparticles, hydrogels and tissue-engineered scaffolds. The literature was reviewed to determine their therapeutic efficacy, biocompatibility and potential for clinical use. Biomaterials such as nanoparticles and hydrogels have showed promise in controlled drug delivery, allowing for focused treatment at sick artery sites while lowering systemic steroid exposure. Tissue-engineered scaffolds have shown promise for vascular repair and regeneration, at least more effectively than standard methods of treating an injured vessel. However, many problems exist, including maintaining long-term biocompatibility, stability and avoiding immunological responses. Although early preclinical studies have produced encouraging results, clinical translation is still in its infancy. Emerging biomaterials will be a potential area in GCA care, offering new opportunities for treatment efficacy enhancement while reducing side effects. Advanced research in the areas of biocompatibility and immune response challenges should be conducted to ease these promising tactics into clinical practice as a new hope for people suffering from this debilitating condition.
References
Greigert H, Ramon A, Tarris G, Martin L, Bonnotte B, Samson M. Temporal artery vascular diseases. J Clin Med. 2022;11(1): 275. doi: 10.3390/jcm11010275.
Palamidas DA, Chatzis L, Papadaki M, Gissis I, Kambas K, Andreakos E, Tzioufas AG. Current insights into tissue injury of giant cell arteritis: from acute inflammatory responses towards inappropriate tissue remodeling. Cells. 2024;13(5): 430. doi: 10.3390/cells13050430.
Bilton EJ, Mollan SP. Giant cell arteritis: reviewing the advancing diagnostics and management. Eye (Lond). 2023;37(12): 2365–73. doi: 10.1038/s41433-023-02433-y.
Zare I, Mirshafiei M, Kheilnezhad B, Far BF, Hassanpour M, Pishbin E, Makvandi P. Hydrogel integrated graphene superstructures for tissue engineering: from periodontal to neural regeneration. Carbon. 2024;xx: 118970. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2024.118970.
Afzal O, Altamimi AS, Nadeem MS, Alzarea SI, Almalki WH, Tariq A, et al. Nanoparticles in drug delivery: from history to therapeutic applications. Nanomaterials. 2022;12(24): 4494. doi: 10.3390/nano12244494.
Kandaswamy K, Panda SP, Shaik MR, Hussain SA, Deepak P, Thiyagarajulu N, Arockiaraj J. Formulation of asiatic acid loaded polymeric chitosan based hydrogel for effective MRSA infection control and enhanced wound healing in zebrafish models. Int J Biol Macromol. 2024;xx: 137425. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.137425.
Vickram AS, Infant SS, Manikandan S, Sowndharya BB, Gulothungan G, Chopra H. 3D bio printed scaffolds and smart implants: evaluating functional performance in animal surgery models. Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2025;87: 3618–34. doi: 10.1097/MS9.0000000000003333.
Recker F, Jin L, Veith P, Lauterbach M, Karakostas P, Schäfer VS. Development and proof of concept of a low cost ultrasound training model for diagnosis of giant cell arteritis using 3D printing. Diagnostics (Basel). 2021;11(6): 1106. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics11061106.
Tu Z, Zhong Y, Hu H, Shao D, Haag R, Schirner M, Lee J, Sullenger B, Leong KW. Design of therapeutic biomaterials to control inflammation. Nat Rev Mater. 2022;7(7): 557–74. doi: 10.1038/s41578-022-00426-z.
Park JE, Kim DH. Advanced immunomodulatory biomaterials for therapeutic applications. Adv Healthc Mater. 2025;14(5): 2304496. doi: 10.1002/adhm.202304496.
Saadoun D, Vautier M, Cacoub P. Medium and large vessel vasculitis. Circulation. 2021;143(3): 267–82. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.046657.
Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ. Immunology of giant cell arteritis. Circ Res. 2023;132(2): 238–50. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.122.322128.
Jin M, Fang J, Wang JJ, Shao X, Xu SW, Liu PQ, Ye WC, Liu ZP. Regulation of Toll like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways in atherosclerosis: from mechanisms to targeted therapeutics. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2023;44(12): 2358–75. doi: 10.1038/s41401-023-01123-5.
Paroli M, Caccavale R, Accapezzato D. Giant cell arteritis: advances in understanding pathogenesis and implications for clinical practice. Cells. 2024;13(3): 267. doi: 10.3390/cells13030267.
Stamatis P, Turesson C, Michailidou D, Mohammad AJ. Pathogenesis of giant cell arteritis with focus on cellular populations. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9: 1058600. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2022.1058600.
Marimuthu MMC, Balamurugan BS, Sundaram VA, Anbalagan S, Chopra H. Cytokine based immunotherapy for gastric cancer: targeting inflammation for tumor control. Explor Target Antitumor Ther. 2025;6: 1002312. doi: 10.37349/etat.2025.1002312.
Shi Y, Lu Y, You J. Antigen transfer and its effect on vaccine induced immune amplification and tolerance. Theranostics. 2022;12(13): 5888–xx.
Mills KH. IL 17 and IL 17 producing cells in protection versus pathology. Nat Rev Immunol. 2023;23(1): 38–54. doi: 10.1038/s41577-022-00746-9.
Cao G, Xuan X, Hu J, Zhang R, Jin H, Dong H. How vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype switching contributes to vascular disease. Cell Commun Signal. 2022;20(1): 180. doi: 10.1186/s12964-022-00993-2.
Pepper K. Giant cell arteritis. Postgrad Med. 2023;135(Suppl 1): 22–32. doi: 10.1080/00325481.2023.2190288.
Greigert H, Genet C, Ramon A, Bonnotte B, Samson M. New insights into the pathogenesis of giant cell arteritis: mechanisms involved in maintaining vascular inflammation. J Clin Med. 2022;11(10): 2905. doi: 10.3390/jcm11102905.
Bala N, McGurk AI, Zilch T, Rup AN, Carter EM, Leddon SA, Fowell DJ. T cell activation niches—optimizing T cell effector function in inflamed and infected tissues. Immunol Rev. 2022;306(1): 164–80. doi: 10.1111/imr.13047.
Xu YD, Cheng M, Shang PP, Yang YQ. Role of IL 6 in dendritic cell functions. J Leukoc Biol. 2022;111(3): 695–709. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3MR0621-616RR.
Xiong X, Luo Z, Zhou H, Duan Z, Niu L, Zhang K, Huang G, Li W. Downregulation of TIGIT expression in FOXP3+ regulatory T cells in acute coronary syndrome. J Inflamm Res. 2022;15: 1195–207. doi: 10.2147/JIR.Sxxxxxx.
Jhilta A, Jadhav K, Singh R, Ray E, Kumar A, Singh AK, Verma RK. Breaking the cycle: matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors as an alternative approach in managing tuberculosis pathogenesis and progression. ACS Infect Dis. 2024;10(8): 2567–83. doi: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00385.
Catalán D, Mansilla MA, Ferrier A, Soto L, Oleinika K, Aguillón JC, Aravena O. Immunosuppressive mechanisms of regulatory B cells. Front Immunol. 2021;12: 611795. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.611795.
Chen W. TGF β regulation of T cells. Annu Rev Immunol. 2023;41: 483–512. doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-101921-045939.
Ahmadzadeh K, Vanoppen M, Rose CD, Matthys P, Wouters CH. Multinucleated giant cells: current insights in phenotype, biological activities, and mechanism of formation. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022;10: 873226. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2022.873226.
Chakraborty R, Chatterjee P, Dave JM, Ostriker AC, Greif DM, Rzucidlo EM, Martin KA. Targeting smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching in vascular disease. J Vasc Surg Vasc Sci. 2021;2: 79–94. doi: 10.1016/j.jvssci.2021.04.001.
Ten Cate H, Guzik TJ, Eikelboom J, Spronk HM. Pleiotropic actions of factor Xa inhibition in cardiovascular prevention: mechanistic insights and implications for anti thrombotic treatment. Cardiovasc Res. 2021;117(9): 2030–44. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvaa263.
Akiyama M, Ohtsuki S, Berry GJ, Liang DH, Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM. Innate and adaptive immunity in giant cell arteritis. Front Immunol. 2021;11: 621098. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.621098.
Martins SG, Zilhão R, Thorsteinsdóttir S, Carlos AR. Linking oxidative stress and DNA damage to changes in the expression of extracellular matrix components. Front Genet. 2021;12: 673002. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2021.673002.
Xia T, Yu J, Du M, Chen X, Wang C, Li R. Vascular endothelial cell injury: causes, molecular mechanisms, and treatments. MedComm. 2025;6(2): e70057. doi: 10.1002/mco2.70057.
Pacinella G, Ciaccio AM, Tuttolomondo A. Endothelial dysfunction and chronic inflammation: the cornerstones of vascular alterations in age related diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(24): 15722. doi: 10.3390/ijms232415722.
Picos A, Seoane N, Campos Toimil M, Viña D. Vascular senescence and aging: mechanisms, clinical implications, and therapeutic prospects. Biogerontology. 2025;26(3): 118. doi: 10.1007/s10522-025-10256-5.
Tang HY, Chen AQ, Zhang H, Gao XF, Kong XQ, Zhang JJ. Vascular smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching in cardiovascular diseases. Cells. 2022;11(24): 4060. doi: 10.3390/cells11244060.
Gao J, Cao H, Hu G, Wu Y, Xu Y, Cui H, Lu HS, Zheng L. The mechanism and therapy of aortic aneurysms. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8(1): 55. doi: 10.1038/s41392-023-01325-7.
Agaram Sundaram V, Saravanan B, Durairaj JR, Balamurugan BS, Chinnakannu Marimuthu MMC, Chopra H, Emran TB. Nanoparticles for overcoming blood brain barrier challenges in neurodegenerative illness. Biomed Eng Commun. 2025;4(4): 22. doi: 10.53388/BMEC2025022.
Kesharwani P, Bisht A, Alexander A, Dave V, Sharma S. Biomedical applications of hydrogels in drug delivery system: an update. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2021;66: 102914. doi: 10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102914.
Deng X, Gould M, Ali MA. A review of current advancements for wound healing: biomaterial applications and medical devices. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2022;110(11): 2542–73. doi: 10.1002/jbm.b.35086.
Guan Y, Racioppi L, Gerecht S. Engineering biomaterials to tailor the microenvironment for macrophage–endothelium interactions. Nat Rev Mater. 2023;8(10): 688–99. doi: 10.1038/s41578-023-00591-9.
Teles LN, Li CM, Wilkes ZM, Stock AA, Tomei AA. Islet immunoengineering. In: Salvatori D, Ed. Pluripotent stem cell therapy for diabetes. Cham: Springer; 2024. p.317–59.
Goyal AK, Ramchandani M, Basak T. Recent advancements, challenges, and future prospects in usage of nanoformulation as theranostics in inflammatory diseases. J Nanotheranostics. 2023;4(1): 106–26. doi: 10.3390/jnt4010006.
Aymonnier K, Amsler J, Lamprecht P, Salama A, Witko Sarsat V. The neutrophil: a key resourceful agent in immune mediated vasculitis. Immunol Rev. 2023;314(1): 326–56. doi: 10.1111/imr.13170.
Hou M, Wu X, Zhao Z, Deng Q, Chen Y, Yin L. Endothelial cell targeting, ROS ultrasensitive drug/siRNA co delivery nanocomplexes mitigate early stage neutrophil recruitment for the anti inflammatory treatment of myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury. Acta Biomater. 2022;143: 344–55. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.02.018.
Tewari AK, Upadhyay SC, Kumar M, Pathak K, Kaushik D, Verma R, et al. Insights on development aspects of polymeric nanocarriers: the translation from bench to clinic. Polymers (Basel). 2022;14(17): 3545. doi: 10.3390/polym14173545.
Mikušová V, Mikuš P. Advances in chitosan based nanoparticles for drug delivery. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(17): 9652. doi: 10.3390/ijms22179652.
Jarneborn A, Kopparapu PK, Jin T. The dual edged sword: risks and benefits of JAK inhibitors in infections. Pathogens. 2025;14(4): 324. doi: 10.3390/pathogens14040324.
Trucillo P. Biomaterials for drug delivery and human applications. Materials. 2024;17(2): 456. doi: 10.3390/ma17020456.
Kaur H, Gogoi B, Sharma I, Das DK, Azad MA, Pramanik DD, Pramanik A. Hydrogels as a potential biomaterial for multimodal therapeutic applications. Mol Pharm. 2024 Oct 7;21(10):4827-48. doi: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00595.
Zhang Y, Wu BM. Current advances in stimuli responsive hydrogels as smart drug delivery carriers. Gels. 2023;9(10): 838. doi: 10.1002/advs.202100540.
Capuana E, Lopresti F, Ceraulo M, La Carrubba V. Poly L lactic acid (PLLA) based biomaterials for regenerative medicine: a review on processing and applications. Polymers (Basel). 2022;14(6): 1153. doi: 10.3390/polym14061153.
Rosellini E, Giordano C, Guidi L, Cascone MG. Biomimetic approaches in scaffold based blood vessel tissue engineering. Biomimetics (Basel). 2024;9(7): 377. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics9070377.
Sreeharsha N, Chitrapriya N, Jang YJ, Kenchappa V. Evaluation of nanoparticle drug delivery systems used in preclinical studies. Ther Deliv. 2021;12(4): 325–36. doi: 10.4155/tde-2020-0116.
Visan AI, Negut I. Development and applications of PLGA hydrogels for sustained delivery of therapeutic agents. Gels. 2024;10(8): 497. doi: 10.3390/gels10080497.
Kazemzadeh G, Jirofti N, Kazemi Mehrjerdi H, Rajabioun M, Alamdaran SA, Mohebbi Kalhori D, et al. Developments in in vitro and in vivo evaluation of hybrid PCL based natural polymer nanofiber scaffolds for vascular tissue engineering. J Ind Text. 2022;52: 15280837221128314. doi: 10.1177/1528083722112831.
Peng T, Xu W, Li Q, Ding Y, Huang Y. Pharmaceutical liposomal delivery—specific considerations of innovation and challenges. Biomater Sci. 2023;11(1): 62–75. doi: 10.1039/D2BM01252A.
Heragh BK, Javanshir S, Mahdavinia GR, Naimi Jamal MR. Development of pH sensitive biomaterial based nanocomposite for highly controlled drug release. Results Mater. 2022;16: 100324. doi: 10.1016/j.rinma.2022.100324.
Song M, Aipire A, Dilxat E, Li J, Xia G, Jiang Z, Fan Z, Li J. Research progress of polysaccharide gold nanocomplexes in drug delivery. Pharmaceutics. 2024;16(1): 88. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16010088.
Akilbekova D, Turlybekuly A. Patient specific 3D bioprinting for in situ tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In: 3D Printing in Medicine. Woodhead Publishing; 2023. p.149–78. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-89831-7.00003-1.
Fathi F, Machado TO, Kodel HAC, Portugal I, Ferreira IO, Zielinska A, Oliveira MBP, Souto EB. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for delivery of plant bioactives: part II—applications and preclinical advancements. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2024;21(10): 1491–99. doi: 10.1080/17425247.2024.2410949.
Mehta S, Suresh A, Nayak Y, Narayan R, Nayak UY. Hybrid nanostructures: versatile systems for biomedical applications. Coord Chem Rev. 2022;460: 214482. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214482.
Brannon ER, Guevara MV, Pacifici NJ, Lee JK, Lewis JS, Eniola Adefeso O. Polymeric particle based therapies for acute inflammatory diseases. Nat Rev Mater. 2022;7(10): 796–813. doi: 10.1038/s41578-022-00458-5.
Xu Y, Chen J, Ding J, Sun J, Song W, Tang Z, Xiao C, Chen X. Synthetic polymers for drug, gene, and vaccine delivery. Polym Sci. 2025;1(3): 171–220. doi: 10.1021/polymscitech.5c00010.
Rana MM, De la Hoz Siegler H. Evolution of hybrid hydrogels: next generation biomaterials for drug delivery and tissue engineering. Gels. 2024;10(4): 216. doi: 10.3390/gels10040216.
Omidian H, Wilson RL. PLGA implants for controlled drug delivery and regenerative medicine: advances, challenges, and clinical potential. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025;18(5): 631. doi: 10.3390/ph18050631.
Kass LE, Nguyen J. Nanocarrier hydrogel composite delivery systems for precision drug release. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2022;14(2): e1756. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1756.
He J, Ren W, Wang W, Han W, Jiang L, Zhang D, Guo M. Exosomal targeting and its potential clinical application. Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2022;12(10): 2385–2402. doi: 10.1007/s13346-021-01087-1.
Szekeres D, Al Othman B. Current developments in the diagnosis and treatment of giant cell arteritis. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9: 1066503. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2022.1066503.
Nunes D, Andrade S, Ramalho MJ, Loureiro JA, Pereira MC. Polymeric nanoparticle loaded hydrogels for biomedical applications: a systematic review on in vivo findings. Polymers (Basel). 2022;14(5): 1010. doi: 10.3390/polym14051010.
Duan H, Wang L, Wang S, He Y. Surface modification potentials of cell membrane based materials for targeted therapies: a chemotherapy focused review. Nanomedicine (Lond). 2023;18(19): 1281–303. doi: 10.2217/nnm-2023-0164.
Sundaram VA, Balamurugan BS, Viruthachalam V, Chopra H, Emran TB. Advancing organ and tissue repair through 3D bioprinting: a breakthrough solution to the global organ shortage crisis. Int J Surg Open. 2025;63: 55–6. doi: 10.1097/IO9.0000000000000238.
Li J, Chen X, Hu M, Wei J, Nie M, Chen J, Liu X. The application of composite scaffold materials based on decellularized vascular matrix in tissue engineering: a review. Biomed Eng Online. 2023;22(1): 62. doi: 10.1186/s12938-023-01120-z.
Liang JP, Accolla RP, Jiang K, Li Y, Stabler CL. Controlled release of anti inflammatory and proangiogenic factors from macroporous scaffolds. Tissue Eng Part A. 2021;27(19–20): 1275–89. doi: 10.1089/ten.tea.2020.0287.
Chen J, Zhang D, Wu LP, Zhao M. Current strategies for engineered vascular grafts and vascularized tissue engineering. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15(9): 2015. doi: 10.3390/polym15092015.
Vach Agocsova S, Culenova M, Birova I, Omanikova L, Moncmanova B, Danisovic L, et al. Resorbable biomaterials used for 3D scaffolds in tissue engineering: a review. Materials (Basel). 2023;16(12): 4267. doi: 10.3390/ma16124267.
Morton AB, Jacobsen NL, Segal SS. Functionalizing biomaterials to promote neurovascular regeneration following skeletal muscle injury. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2021;320(6): C1099–1111. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00501.2020.
Eivazzadeh Keihan R, Sadat Z, Lalebeigi F, Naderi N, Panahi L, Ganjali F, et al. Effects of mechanical properties of carbon based nanocomposites on scaffolds for tissue engineering applications: a comprehensive review. Nanoscale Adv. 2024;6(2): 337–66. doi: 10.1039/D3NA00554B.
Ostadi Y, Khanali J, Tehrani FA, Yazdanpanah G, Bahrami S, Niazi F, Niknejad H. Decellularized extracellular matrix scaffolds for soft tissue augmentation: from host–scaffold interactions to bottlenecks in clinical translation. Biomater Res. 2024;28: 71. doi: 10.34133/bmr.0071.
Abedi N, Sadeghian A, Kouhi M, Haugen HJ, Savabi O, Nejatidanesh F. Immunomodulation in bone tissue engineering: recent advancements in scaffold design and biological modifications for enhanced regeneration. ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2025;11(3): 1269–90. doi: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.4c01613.
Bordbar Khiabani A, Gasik M. Smart hydrogels for advanced drug delivery systems. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(7): 3665. doi: 10.3390/ijms23073665.
Wang Y, Kankala RK, Ou C, Chen A, Yang Z. Advances in hydrogel based vascularized tissues for tissue repair and drug screening. Bioact Mater. 2022;9: 198–220. doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.07.005.
Hu S, Liang Y, Chen J, Gao X, Zheng Y, Wang L, et al. Mechanisms of hydrogel based microRNA delivery systems and application strategies in targeting inflammatory diseases. J Tissue Eng. 2024;15: 20417314241265897. doi: 10.1177/20417314241265897.
Rezaei Z, Yilmaz Aykut D, Tourk FM, Bassous N, Barroso Zuppa M, Shawl AI, et al. Immunomodulating hydrogels as stealth platform for drug delivery applications. Pharmaceutics. 2022;14(10): 2244. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14102244.
Ana RD, Fonseca J, Karczewski J, Silva AM, Zielińska A, Souto EB. Lipid based nanoparticulate systems for the ocular delivery of bioactives with anti inflammatory properties. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(20): 12102. doi: 10.3390/ijms232012102.
Qin Q, Wang M, Zou Y, Yang D, Deng Y, Lin S, et al. Development of nanoparticle based drug delivery system for inflammation treatment and diagnosis. MedComm (Lond). 2023;2(4): e65. doi: 10.1002/mba2.65.
Wei H, Cui J, Lin K, Xie J, Wang X. Recent advances in smart stimuli responsive biomaterials for bone therapeutics and regeneration. Bone Res. 2022;10(1): 17. doi: 10.1038/s41413-021-00180-y.
Rizwan M, Yahya R, Hassan A, Yar M, Azzahari AD, Selvanathan V, et al. pH sensitive hydrogels in drug delivery: brief history, properties, swelling, and release mechanism, material selection and applications. Polymers (Basel). 2017;9(4): 137. doi: 10.3390/polym9040137.
Wang P, Sun Y, Shi X, Shen H, Ning H, Liu H. 3D printing of tissue engineering scaffolds: a focus on vascular regeneration. Bio Design Manuf. 2021;4(2): 344–78. doi: 10.1007/s42242-020-00109-0.
Kong Z, Wang X. Bioprinting technologies and bioinks for vascular model establishment. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(1): 891. doi: 10.3390/ijms24010891.
Chen Q, Zheng Z, Lin M, Guo Z, Huang H, Xue Q, et al. Nanocomposite hydrogels: a promising approach for the treatment of degenerative joint diseases. Small Sci. 2024;4(11): 2400236. doi: 10.1002/smsc.202400236.
Borthakur PP, Das A, Sahariah JJ, Pramanik P, Baruah E, Pathak K. Revolutionizing patient care: 3D printing for customized medical devices and therapeutics. Biomed Mater Devices. 2025. doi: 10.1007/s44174-025-00324-2.
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).