Exploration of the Fitness of Law Enforcement Candidates across Different Ethnicities
Sažetak
Law enforcement agencies often hire diverse candidates reflective of their community. Candidates should possess good fitness to complete academy; however, ethnicity/sociocultural norms could influence fitness. This study investigated fitness differences between law enforcement candidates of different ethnicities. Retrospective analysis was conducted on data from 2041 candidates (1659 males, 382 females) from a US law enforcement agency. During the hiring process, candidates completed: 60-s push-ups; 60-s sit-ups; 75-yard pursuit run (75PR); 60-s arm ergometer revolutions; and 2.4-km run. Candidates self-reported their ethnicity as one of the following: Asian, Black, Filipino/Pacific Islander, Hispanic, Indigenous, Non-Specified (candidate did not disclose ethnicity, ethnicity not represented in provided options), and White. A univariate analysis, with sex as a covariate, determined between-group differences (p<0.05). Effect sizes (d) were also derived for pairwise comparisons. White candidates completed fewer push-ups than Non-Specified candidates (p=0.036, d=0.28). For the 75PR, Black and Non-Specified candidates were faster than = Asian and Hispanic candidates (p≤0.024, d=0.43-0.53); White candidates were faster compared to Hispanic candidates (p<0.001, d=0.27). Black candidates completed the 2.4-km run slower than the Hispanic, Non-Specified, and White candidates (p≤0.042, d=0.22-0.43). Ethnicity alone does not determine one’s aptitude as a law enforcement officer. However, the data did suggest that certain ethnic groups exhibited select fitness differences. Personnel should understand sociocultural norms that could influence candidate fitness. This study provides further evidence for ability-based training during academy and the need for a broad fitness battery to assess different characteristics that measure the wide range of physical traits essential for performing occupational tasks.
Reference
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Caraballo, C., Herrin, J., Mahajan, S., Massey, D., Lu, Y., Ndumele, C. D., Drye, E. E., & Krumholz, H. M. (2022). Temporal trends in racial and ethnic disparities in multimorbidity prevalence in the United States, 1999-2018. American Journal of Medicine, 135(9), 1083-1092.e1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2022.04.010
Casas, Y. G., Schiller, B. C., DeSouza, C. A., & Seals, D. R. (2001). Total and regional body composition across age in healthy Hispanic and white women of similar socioeconomic status. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73(1), 13-18. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/73.1.13
Ceaser, T., & Hunter, G. (2015). Black and White race differences in aerobic capacity, muscle fiber type, and their influence on metabolic processes. Sports Medicine, 45(5), 615-623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0318-7
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Cocke, C., Dawes, J., & Orr, R. M. (2016). The use of 2 conditioning programs and the fitness characteristics of police academy cadets. Journal of Athletic Training, 51(11), 887-896. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-51.8.06
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Deurenberg, P., Yap, M., & van Staveren, W. A. (1998). Body mass index and percent body fat: A meta analysis among different ethnic groups. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 22(12), 1164-1171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800741
Durbin, R. A., & Cox, A. (2020). Signaling diversity: A study of recruitment strategies for female and minority police candidates. World Academics Journal of Management, 8(4), 1-5. 10.26438/wajm
Fang, J., Yang, Q., Ayala, C., & Loustalot, F. (2014). Disparities in access to care among US adults with self-reported hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension, 27(11), 1377-1386. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpu061
Fielding, N. G. (2024). Understanding minority recruitment to the police: Beyond systematic review. Policing and Society, 34(9), 877-894. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2024.2342451
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Lockie, R. G., Carlock, B. N., Ruvalcaba, T. J., Dulla, J. M., Orr, R. M., Dawes, J. J., & McGuire, M. B. (2021a). Skeletal muscle mass and fat mass relationships with physical fitness test performance in law enforcement recruits before academy. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 35(5), 1287-1295. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003918
Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., Dulla, J. M., Orr, R. M., & Hernandez, E. (2020a). Physical fitness, sex considerations, and academy graduation for law enforcement recruits. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(12), 3356-3363. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003844
Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., Orr, R. M., & Dulla, J. M. (2020b). Recruit fitness standards from a large law enforcement agency: Between-class comparisons, percentile rankings, and implications for physical training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(4), 934-941. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003534
Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., Orr, R. M., & Dulla, J. M. (2021b). Physical fitness: Differences between initial hiring to academy in law enforcement recruits who graduate or separate from academy. Work, 68(4), 1081-1090. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-213438
Lockie, R. G., Orr, R. M., & Dawes, J. J. (2022). Slowing the path of time: Age-related and normative fitness testing data for police officers from a health and wellness program. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(3), 747-756. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000004197
Lockie, R. G., Orr, R. M., Sanchez, K. J., Gonzales, S. M., Viramontes, E., Kennedy, K., & Dawes, J. J. (2024). Relationships between physical ability test performance and fitness in recruits from a Southeastern U.S. police department. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 38(8), 1472-1478. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000004797
Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. (2021). LA County Sheriff's Department Employees are now Mirroring LA County Demographics. Retrieved March 13, 2025, from https://lasd.org/lasd-employees-are-now-mirroring-la-county-demographics/.
McPhillips, D. (2020). A New Analysis Finds Growing Diversity in U.S. Cities. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://www.usnews.com/news/cities/articles/2020-01-22/americas-cities-are-becoming-more-diverse-new-analysis-shows.
Nielsen, J., & Christensen, D. L. (2011). Glucose intolerance in the West African Diaspora: A skeletal muscle fibre type distribution hypothesis. Acta Physiologica, 202(4), 605-616. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1716.2011.02272.x
Orr, R. M., Ford, K., & Stierli, M. (2016). Implementation of an ability-based training program in police force recruits. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(10), 2781-2787. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000000898
Petersen, R., Pan, L., & Blanck, H. M. (2019). Racial and ethnic disparities in adult obesity in the United States: CDC's tracking to inform state and local action. Preventing Chronic Disease, 16, E46. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd16.180579
Police Executive Research Forum. (2021). Survey on Police Workforce Trends. Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://www.policeforum.org/workforcesurveyjune2021.
Post, B. K., Dawes, J. J., & Lockie, R. G. (2022). Relationships between tests of strength, power, and speed and the 75-yard pursuit run. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(1), 99-105. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003398
Psatha, A., Al-Mahayri, Z. N., Mitropoulou, C., & Patrinos, G. P. (2024). Meta-analysis of genomic variants in power and endurance sports to decode the impact of genomics on athletic performance and success. Human Genomics, 18(1), 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-024-00621-9
Rehman, Z. (2024). 5 Largest Police Departments in the US. Retrieved March 3, 2025, from https://www.insidermonkey.com/blog/5-largest-police-departments-in-the-us-1278976/.
Saffer, H., Dave, D., Grossman, M., & Leung, L. A. (2013). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in physical activity. Journal of Human Capital, 7(4), 378-410. https://doi.org/10.1086/671200
Silva, A. M., Shen, W., Heo, M., Gallagher, D., Wang, Z., Sardinha, L. B., & Heymsfield, S. B. (2010). Ethnicity-related skeletal muscle differences across the lifespan. American Journal of Human Biology, 22(1), 76-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20956
Sorensen, L., Smolander, J., Louhevaara, V., Korhonen, O., & Oja, P. (2000). Physical activity, fitness and body composition of Finnish police officers: a 15-year follow-up study. Occupational Medicine, 50(1), 3-10. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/50.1.3
Stierman, B., Afful, J., Carroll, M. D., Chen, T. C., Davy, O., Fink, S., Fryar, C. D., Gu, Q., Hales, C. M., Hughes, J. P., Ostchega, Y., Storandt, R. J., & Akinbami, L. J. (2021). National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017-March 2020 Prepandemic Data Files-Development of Files and Prevalence Estimates for Selected Health Outcomes. National Health Statistics Reports, (158). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:106273
Stults-Kolehmainen, M. A., Stanforth, P. R., Bartholomew, J. B., Lu, T., Abolt, C. J., & Sinha, R. (2013). DXA estimates of fat in abdominal, trunk and hip regions varies by ethnicity in men. Nutrition & Diabetes, 3(3), e64-e64. https://doi.org/10.1038/nutd.2013.5
Todak, N., Huff, J., & James, L. (2018). Investigating perceptions of race and ethnic diversity among prospective police officers. Police Practice and Research, 19(5), 490-504. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2018.1428097
U.S. Department of Justice, & U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2015). Advancing Diversity in Law Enforcement. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/lbrr/archives/cnmcs-plcng/cn34315-eng.pdf.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1997). Fact Sheet: Age Discrimination. Retrieved March 15, 2025, from https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/guidance/fact-sheet-age-discrimination.
Zulfiqar, M. M., Wooland, J., Schram, B., Dawes, J. J., Lockie, R., & Orr, R. (2021). Battery fitness testing in law enforcement: A critical review of the literature. International Journal of Exercise Science, 14(4), 613-632. https://doi.org/10.70252/PYWH7079
Brooks, C. (2022). Federal Law Enforcement Officers, 2020 – Statistical Tables. Retrieved March 13, 2025, from https://bjs.ojp.gov/document/fleo20st.pdf.
Caraballo, C., Herrin, J., Mahajan, S., Massey, D., Lu, Y., Ndumele, C. D., Drye, E. E., & Krumholz, H. M. (2022). Temporal trends in racial and ethnic disparities in multimorbidity prevalence in the United States, 1999-2018. American Journal of Medicine, 135(9), 1083-1092.e1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2022.04.010
Casas, Y. G., Schiller, B. C., DeSouza, C. A., & Seals, D. R. (2001). Total and regional body composition across age in healthy Hispanic and white women of similar socioeconomic status. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73(1), 13-18. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/73.1.13
Ceaser, T., & Hunter, G. (2015). Black and White race differences in aerobic capacity, muscle fiber type, and their influence on metabolic processes. Sports Medicine, 45(5), 615-623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0318-7
Cesario, K. A., Dulla, J. M., Moreno, M. R., Bloodgood, A. M., Dawes, J. J., & Lockie, R. G. (2018). Relationships between assessments in a physical ability test for law enforcement: Is there redundancy in certain assessments? International Journal of Exercise Science, 11(4), 1063-1073. https://doi.org/10.70252/EYLB2853
Cocke, C., Dawes, J., & Orr, R. M. (2016). The use of 2 conditioning programs and the fitness characteristics of police academy cadets. Journal of Athletic Training, 51(11), 887-896. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-51.8.06
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Deurenberg, P., Yap, M., & van Staveren, W. A. (1998). Body mass index and percent body fat: A meta analysis among different ethnic groups. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 22(12), 1164-1171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800741
Durbin, R. A., & Cox, A. (2020). Signaling diversity: A study of recruitment strategies for female and minority police candidates. World Academics Journal of Management, 8(4), 1-5. 10.26438/wajm
Fang, J., Yang, Q., Ayala, C., & Loustalot, F. (2014). Disparities in access to care among US adults with self-reported hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension, 27(11), 1377-1386. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpu061
Fielding, N. G. (2024). Understanding minority recruitment to the police: Beyond systematic review. Policing and Society, 34(9), 877-894. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2024.2342451
International Association of Chiefs of Police. (2024). The State of Recruitment & Retention: A Continuing Crisis for Policing. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/2024-11/2024Recruitment%26RetentionSurveyResults.pdf.
Korre, M., Loh, K., Eshleman, E. J., Lessa, F. S., Porto, L. G., Christophi, C. A., & Kales, S. N. (2019). Recruit fitness and police academy performance: A prospective validation study. Occupational Medicine, 69(8-9), 541-548. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqz110
Kukić, F., Heinrich, K. M., Koropanovski, N., Poston, W. S. C., Čvorović, A., Dawes, J. J., Orr, R., & Dopsaj, M. (2020). Differences in body composition across police occupations and moderation effects of leisure time physical activity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18), 6825. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186825
Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
Lockie, R. G., Carlock, B. N., Ruvalcaba, T. J., Dulla, J. M., Orr, R. M., Dawes, J. J., & McGuire, M. B. (2021a). Skeletal muscle mass and fat mass relationships with physical fitness test performance in law enforcement recruits before academy. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 35(5), 1287-1295. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003918
Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., Dulla, J. M., Orr, R. M., & Hernandez, E. (2020a). Physical fitness, sex considerations, and academy graduation for law enforcement recruits. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(12), 3356-3363. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003844
Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., Orr, R. M., & Dulla, J. M. (2020b). Recruit fitness standards from a large law enforcement agency: Between-class comparisons, percentile rankings, and implications for physical training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(4), 934-941. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003534
Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., Orr, R. M., & Dulla, J. M. (2021b). Physical fitness: Differences between initial hiring to academy in law enforcement recruits who graduate or separate from academy. Work, 68(4), 1081-1090. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-213438
Lockie, R. G., Orr, R. M., & Dawes, J. J. (2022). Slowing the path of time: Age-related and normative fitness testing data for police officers from a health and wellness program. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(3), 747-756. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000004197
Lockie, R. G., Orr, R. M., Sanchez, K. J., Gonzales, S. M., Viramontes, E., Kennedy, K., & Dawes, J. J. (2024). Relationships between physical ability test performance and fitness in recruits from a Southeastern U.S. police department. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 38(8), 1472-1478. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000004797
Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. (2021). LA County Sheriff's Department Employees are now Mirroring LA County Demographics. Retrieved March 13, 2025, from https://lasd.org/lasd-employees-are-now-mirroring-la-county-demographics/.
McPhillips, D. (2020). A New Analysis Finds Growing Diversity in U.S. Cities. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://www.usnews.com/news/cities/articles/2020-01-22/americas-cities-are-becoming-more-diverse-new-analysis-shows.
Nielsen, J., & Christensen, D. L. (2011). Glucose intolerance in the West African Diaspora: A skeletal muscle fibre type distribution hypothesis. Acta Physiologica, 202(4), 605-616. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1716.2011.02272.x
Orr, R. M., Ford, K., & Stierli, M. (2016). Implementation of an ability-based training program in police force recruits. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(10), 2781-2787. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000000898
Petersen, R., Pan, L., & Blanck, H. M. (2019). Racial and ethnic disparities in adult obesity in the United States: CDC's tracking to inform state and local action. Preventing Chronic Disease, 16, E46. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd16.180579
Police Executive Research Forum. (2021). Survey on Police Workforce Trends. Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://www.policeforum.org/workforcesurveyjune2021.
Post, B. K., Dawes, J. J., & Lockie, R. G. (2022). Relationships between tests of strength, power, and speed and the 75-yard pursuit run. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(1), 99-105. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003398
Psatha, A., Al-Mahayri, Z. N., Mitropoulou, C., & Patrinos, G. P. (2024). Meta-analysis of genomic variants in power and endurance sports to decode the impact of genomics on athletic performance and success. Human Genomics, 18(1), 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-024-00621-9
Rehman, Z. (2024). 5 Largest Police Departments in the US. Retrieved March 3, 2025, from https://www.insidermonkey.com/blog/5-largest-police-departments-in-the-us-1278976/.
Saffer, H., Dave, D., Grossman, M., & Leung, L. A. (2013). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in physical activity. Journal of Human Capital, 7(4), 378-410. https://doi.org/10.1086/671200
Silva, A. M., Shen, W., Heo, M., Gallagher, D., Wang, Z., Sardinha, L. B., & Heymsfield, S. B. (2010). Ethnicity-related skeletal muscle differences across the lifespan. American Journal of Human Biology, 22(1), 76-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20956
Sorensen, L., Smolander, J., Louhevaara, V., Korhonen, O., & Oja, P. (2000). Physical activity, fitness and body composition of Finnish police officers: a 15-year follow-up study. Occupational Medicine, 50(1), 3-10. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/50.1.3
Stierman, B., Afful, J., Carroll, M. D., Chen, T. C., Davy, O., Fink, S., Fryar, C. D., Gu, Q., Hales, C. M., Hughes, J. P., Ostchega, Y., Storandt, R. J., & Akinbami, L. J. (2021). National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017-March 2020 Prepandemic Data Files-Development of Files and Prevalence Estimates for Selected Health Outcomes. National Health Statistics Reports, (158). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:106273
Stults-Kolehmainen, M. A., Stanforth, P. R., Bartholomew, J. B., Lu, T., Abolt, C. J., & Sinha, R. (2013). DXA estimates of fat in abdominal, trunk and hip regions varies by ethnicity in men. Nutrition & Diabetes, 3(3), e64-e64. https://doi.org/10.1038/nutd.2013.5
Todak, N., Huff, J., & James, L. (2018). Investigating perceptions of race and ethnic diversity among prospective police officers. Police Practice and Research, 19(5), 490-504. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2018.1428097
U.S. Department of Justice, & U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2015). Advancing Diversity in Law Enforcement. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/lbrr/archives/cnmcs-plcng/cn34315-eng.pdf.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1997). Fact Sheet: Age Discrimination. Retrieved March 15, 2025, from https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/guidance/fact-sheet-age-discrimination.
Zulfiqar, M. M., Wooland, J., Schram, B., Dawes, J. J., Lockie, R., & Orr, R. (2021). Battery fitness testing in law enforcement: A critical review of the literature. International Journal of Exercise Science, 14(4), 613-632. https://doi.org/10.70252/PYWH7079
