FAKTORI RIZIKA ZA NASTANAK KARDIOVASKULARNIH BOLESTI
Ključne reči:
kardiovaskularne bolesti, faktori rizika, fizička aktivnost, visok krvni pritisak
Sažetak
Prema izveštaju iz 2018. godine, Svetska zdravstvena organizacija (SZO) je potvrdila da su kardiovaskularne bolesti (KVB) sa udelom od 41% među uzrocima smrtnosti od hroničnih nezaraznih bolesti i zastupljenošću od 31% u svim uzrocima smrtnosti, bile zastupljene sa 17,9 miliona smrtnih ishoda. Sa učešćem od 45% svih smrti godišnje, odnosno 3,9 miliona, KVB su vodeći uzrok smrtnosti u Evropi prema poslednjim podacima Evropske mreže za bolesti srca. Smrtnost od kardiovaskularnih bolesti je malo veća među ženama sa 2,1 milion odnosno 49%, u odnosu na muškarce sa 1,8 ili 40% uzroka smrti. Prema najnovijim publikacijama Instituta za javno zdravlje Srbije „Dr Milan Jovanović Batut“ iz 2018. godine u Srbiji je procenjeno da je smrtnost uzrokovana KVB 51,8%, a zbog slabe implemetacije preventivnih mera Srbija je svrstana u zemlje visokog rizika.
Faktori rizika za KVB na koje se ne može uticati (en. non-modifiable) su: godine, pol, starost, etnička pripadnost i porodična istorija. U faktore rizika na koje se može uticati (en. modifiable) spadaju: visoki sistolni pritisak, visoki procenat lipoproteina male gustine (LDL), dijetarni rizici, visok nivo glukoze, pušenje duvana (aktivno i pasivno), visok indeks telesne mase (BMI), nizak nivo fizičke aktivnosti, disfunkcija bubrega, prekomerna upotreba alkohola, izloženost olovu, zagađenje vazduha, visoka ili niska temperatura.
Prevencija i tretman KVB bazira se na modifikaciji životnog stila, dijetarnoj intervenciji, poboljšanju fizičke aktivnosti i eventualnoj upotrebi lekova. Preporučuje se najmanji unos od 500gr voća i povrća dnevno, ograničen unos soli na manje od 5 grama dnevno, ograničavanje unošenja šećera i masti na 10% i 30% od ukupnog energetskog unosa kao i balansiranje između ukupnog energetskog unosa i potrošnje energije. Rezultati PRIMED studije su pokazali značajne pozitivne efekte mediteranske dijete na primarnu prevenciju KVB. Preporučena fizička aktivnosta je 150 minuta umerenog do visokog intenziteta fizičke aktivnosti nedeljno, 75 minuta visokog intenziteta fizičke aktivnosti nedeljno ili ekvivalent kombinacija umerenog i visokog inteziteta fizičke aktivnosti.
Reference
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8. International Classification of Diseases, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022. License: CC BY-ND 3.0 IGO.
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14. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004; 364(9438):937-952.
15. O'Donnell, Martin J., et al. Global and regional effects of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with acute stroke in 32 countries (INTERSTROKE): a case-control study. Lancet. 2016 Aug 20;388(10046):761-75.
16. Joseph P, Leong D, McKee M, Anand SS, Schwalm JD, Teo K, Mente A, Yusuf S. Reducing the Global Burden of Cardiovascular Disease, Part 1: The Epidemiology and Risk Factors. Circ Res. 2017 Sep 1;121(6):677-694.
17. Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, Agabiti Rosei E, Azizi M, Burnier M, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group , 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Society of Hypertension (ESH). Eur Heart J, 2018 Sep 1; 39(33): 3021–3104.
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19. Kokubo Y, Matsumoto C. Hypertension Is a Risk Factor for Several Types of Heart Disease: Review of Prospective Studies. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2017; 956:419-426.
20. Bolad I, Delafontaine P. Endothelial dysfunction: its role in hypertensive coronary disease. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2005 Jul; 20(4):270-4.
21. Matsuzawa Y, Lerman A. Endothelial dysfunction and coronary artery disease: assessment, prognosis, and treatment. Coron Artery Dis. 2014 Dec;25(8):713-24.
22. Summers MR, Lerman A, Lennon RJ, Rihal CS, Prasad A. Myocardial ischaemia in patients with coronary endothelial dysfunction: insights from body surface ECG mapping and implications for invasive evaluation of chronic chest pain. Eur Heart J. 2011 Nov; 32(22):2758-65.
23. Shimokawa H, Yasuda S. Myocardial ischemia: current concepts and future perspectives. J Cardiol. 2008 Oct; 52(2):67-78.
24. Jeemon P, Séverin T, Amodeo C, Balabanova D, Campbell NRC, Gaita D, et al.. World Heart Federation Roadmap for Hypertension – A 2021 Update. Glob Heart. 2021;16(1):63.
25. Poorolajal J, Zeraati F, Soltanian AR, Sheikh V, Hooshmand E, Maleki A. Oral Potassium Supplementation for Management of Essential Hypertension: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS One. 2017; 12(4): e0174967.
26. Cornelissen VA, Smart NA. Exercise Training for Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013; 2(1): e004473.
27. Roerecke M, Kaczorowski J, Tobe SW, Gmel G, Hasan OSM, Rehm J. The Effect of a Reduction in Alcohol Consumption on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Lancet Public Health. 2017; 2(2): e108–e20.
28. Lavie CJ, Laddu D, Arena R, Ortega FB, Alpert MA, Kushner RF. Healthy Weight and Obesity Prevention: JACC Health Promotion Series. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Sep 25; 72(13):1506-1531.
29. Marques A, Peralta M, Naia A, Loureiro N, de Matos MG. Prevalence of adult overweight and obesity in 20 European countries, 2014. Eur J Public Health. 2018 Apr 1;28(2):295-300.
30. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic: report of a WHO consultation. 2000.
31. Aune D, Sen A, Norat T, Janszky I, Romundstad P, Tonstad S, et al. Body Mass Index, Abdominal Fatness, and Heart Failure Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies. Circulation. 2016 Feb 16; 133(7):639-49.
32. Tremblay MS, Aubert S, Barnes JD, Saunders TJ, Carson V, Latimer-Cheung AE, et al. Sedentary Behavior Research Network (SBRN) – Terminology consensus project process and outcome. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2017;14(1):75.
33. WHO. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
34. Di Raimondo D, Musiari G, Giuliana Rizzo G, Antonino Tuttolomondo A, Antonio Pinto A. Effects of physical inactivity in cardiovascular biomarkers. J Lab Precis Med. 2020 Jul; 5:1-9.
35. Booth FW, Roberts CK, Laye MJ. Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases. Compr Physiol 2012; 2:1143-211.
36. Lavie CJ, O'Keefe JH, Sallis RE. Exercise and the heart --the harm of too little and too much. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2015;14:104-9.
37. Paley CA, Johnson MI. Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome: exercise as medicine? BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2018;10:7.
38. Wang Y, Xu D. Effects of aerobic exercise on lipids and lipoproteins. Lipids Health Dis. 2017;16:132.
39. Balducci S, Zanuso S, Cardelli P, et al. Effect of highversus low-intensity supervised aerobic and resistance training on modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes; the Italian Diabetes and Exercise Study (IDES). PLoS One. 2012;7:e49297.
40. Di Raimondo D, Miceli G, Casuccio A, et al. Does sympathetic overactivation feature all hypertensives? Differences of sympathovagal balance according to night/day blood pressure ratio in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertens Res 2016; 39:440-8.
41. Van der Vorm LN, Huskens D, Kicken CH, et al. Effects of Repeated Bouts of Exercise on the Hemostatic System. Semin Thromb Hemost 2018; 44:710-22.
42. Neelam N. S, Saina S, Senthil P, Prakash P. O. Burden of illness, risk factor and physical activity in cardiovascular disease- A review. Biomedicine [Internet]. 2023 Aug. 30; 43(4):1080-93.
43. Bucciarelli V, Mattioli AV, Sciomer S, Moscucci F, Renda G, Gallina S. The Impact of Physical Activity and Inactivity on Cardiovascular Risk across Women’s Lifespan: An Updated Review. J Clin Med. 2023; 12(13):4347.
44. Kim MK, Han K, Joung HN, Baek KH, Song KH, Kwon HS. Cholesterol levels and development of cardiovascular disease in Koreans with type 2 diabetes mellitus and without pre-existing cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2019 Oct 22;18(1):139.
45. Navarese EP, Robinson JG, Kowalewski M, Kolodziejczak M, Andreotti F, Bliden K, et al. Association Between Baseline LDL-C Level and Total and Cardiovascular Mortality After LDL-C Lowering: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA. 2018 Apr 17;319(15):1566-1579.
46. Zhang Y, Pletcher MJ, Vittinghoff E, Clemons AM, Jacobs DR Jr, Allen NB, et al. Association Between Cumulative Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Exposure During Young Adulthood and Middle Age and Risk of Cardiovascular Events. JAMA Cardiol. 2021 Dec 1;6(12):1406-1413.
47. Schade, D, Cavanaugh B, Ramo B, Eaton RP. "The application of the LDL principle. World J Cardiovasc Dis. 2016 Jan; 6(6)109-125.
48. Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS. A Systematic Review of the Evidence Supporting a Causal Link Between Dietary Factors and Coronary Heart Disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(7):659–669.
49. World Health Organization (WHO) Healthy Diet Factsheet No. 394, http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/nutrientrequirements/healthydiet_factsheet394.pdf.
50. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, Covas MI, Corella D, Arós F, et al. PREDIMED Study Investigators. Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts. N Engl J Med. 2018 Jun 21;378(25):e34.
51. Kondo T, Nakano Y, Adachi, S, Murohara, T. Effects of Tobacco Smoking on Cardiovascular Disease. Circ J. 2019; 83(10), 1980-1985.
52. Zaid M, Miura K, Okayama A, Nakagawa H, Sakata K, Saitoh S, et al. INTERLIPID and INTERMAP Research Groups. Associations of High-Density Lipoprotein Particle and High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol With Alcohol Intake, Smoking, and Body Mass Index - The INTERLIPID Study. Circ J. 2018 Sep 25; 82(10):2557-2565.
53. Hackshaw A, Morris JK, Boniface S, Tang JL, Milenković D. Low cigarette consumption and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: meta-analysis of 141 cohort studies in 55 study reports. BMJ. 2018 Jan 24; 360:j5855.
54. Jamison DT, Summers LH, Alleyne G, Arrow KJ, Berkley S, Binagwaho A, et al. Global health 2035: a world converging within a generation. Lancet. 2013 Dec 7; 382(9908):1898-955.
55. Fan W. Epidemiology in diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Endocrinol. 2017 Feb 15; 6(1):8-16.
56. Fox CS, Golden SH, Anderson C, Bray GA, Burke LE, De Boer IH, et al. Update on prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus in light of recent evidence a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Circulation 2015; 132:691–718.
57. Evert AB, Boucher JL, Cypress M, Dunbar SA, Franz MJ, Mayer-Davis EJ, et al. Nutrition therapy recommendations for the management of adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2014; 37.
58. Colberg SR, Sigal RJ, Yardley JE, Riddell MC, Dunstan DW, Dempsey PC, et al. Physical activity/exercise and diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2016; 39:2065–2079.
2. Roth GA, Mensah GA, Johnson CO, Addolorato G, Ammirati E, Baddour LM, et al. GBD-NHLBI-JACC Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Writing Group. Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors, 1990-2019: Update From the GBD 2019 Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020 Dec 22;76(25):2982-3021. Erratum in: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2021 Apr 20;77(15):1958-1959.
3. World Health Organization (WHO). Noncommunicable diseases country profiles. 2018. [cited January 21st 2020]. Available from: https://www.who.int/nmh/publications/ncd-profiles-2018/en/.
4. Wilkins E, Wilson L, Wickramasinghe K, Bhatnagar P, Leal J, Luengo-Fernandez R, et. al. European Cardiovascular Disease Statistics 2017. European Heart Network, Brussels.
5. Dizdarevic-Bostandzic A, Begovic E, Burekovic A, Velija-Asimi Z, Godinjak A, Karlovic V. Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Patients with Poorly Controlled Diabetes Mellitus. Med Arch. 2018 Feb; 72(1):13-16.
6. Piepoli MF, Hoes AW, Agewall S, Albus C, Brotons C, Catapano AL et al; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: The Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts) Developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR). Eur Heart J. 2016 Aug 1;37(29):2315-2381.
7. Institut za javno zdravlje Srbije "Dr Milan Jovanović Batut". Zdravstveno-statistički godišnjak Republike Srbije 2018. 2019. [cited December 21st 2019]. Available from: http://www.batut.org.rs/download/publikacije/pub2017v026.pdf
8. International Classification of Diseases, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022. License: CC BY-ND 3.0 IGO.
9. Vaduganathan M, Mensah G, Turco J, Fuster V, Roth G. The Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022 Dec; 80 (25) 2361–2371.
10. Little M P, Azizova T V, Richardson D B, Tapio S, Bernier M, Kreuzer M et al. Ionising radiation and cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2023; 380:e072924.
11. Roth GA, Nguyen G, Forouzanfar MH, Mokdad AH, Naghavi M, Murray CJ. Estimates of global and regional premature cardiovascular mortality in 2025. Circulation. 2015;132(13):1270-1282.
12. Balakumar Pitchai, Maung-U Khin, Jagadeesh Gowraganahalli. Prevalence and prevention of cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus. Pharmacol. Res. 2016 Nov; 113(Pt A):600-609.
13. Brown JC, Gerhardt TE, Kwon E. Risk Factors for Coronary Artery Disease. [Updated 2023 Jan 23]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554410/
14. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004; 364(9438):937-952.
15. O'Donnell, Martin J., et al. Global and regional effects of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with acute stroke in 32 countries (INTERSTROKE): a case-control study. Lancet. 2016 Aug 20;388(10046):761-75.
16. Joseph P, Leong D, McKee M, Anand SS, Schwalm JD, Teo K, Mente A, Yusuf S. Reducing the Global Burden of Cardiovascular Disease, Part 1: The Epidemiology and Risk Factors. Circ Res. 2017 Sep 1;121(6):677-694.
17. Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, Agabiti Rosei E, Azizi M, Burnier M, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group , 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Society of Hypertension (ESH). Eur Heart J, 2018 Sep 1; 39(33): 3021–3104.
18. Yusuf S, Joseph P, Rangarajan S, Islam S, Mente A, Hystad P, et al. Modifiable risk factors, cardiovascular disease, and mortality in 155 722 individuals from 21 high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries (PURE): a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020 Mar 7; 395(10226):795-808.
19. Kokubo Y, Matsumoto C. Hypertension Is a Risk Factor for Several Types of Heart Disease: Review of Prospective Studies. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2017; 956:419-426.
20. Bolad I, Delafontaine P. Endothelial dysfunction: its role in hypertensive coronary disease. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2005 Jul; 20(4):270-4.
21. Matsuzawa Y, Lerman A. Endothelial dysfunction and coronary artery disease: assessment, prognosis, and treatment. Coron Artery Dis. 2014 Dec;25(8):713-24.
22. Summers MR, Lerman A, Lennon RJ, Rihal CS, Prasad A. Myocardial ischaemia in patients with coronary endothelial dysfunction: insights from body surface ECG mapping and implications for invasive evaluation of chronic chest pain. Eur Heart J. 2011 Nov; 32(22):2758-65.
23. Shimokawa H, Yasuda S. Myocardial ischemia: current concepts and future perspectives. J Cardiol. 2008 Oct; 52(2):67-78.
24. Jeemon P, Séverin T, Amodeo C, Balabanova D, Campbell NRC, Gaita D, et al.. World Heart Federation Roadmap for Hypertension – A 2021 Update. Glob Heart. 2021;16(1):63.
25. Poorolajal J, Zeraati F, Soltanian AR, Sheikh V, Hooshmand E, Maleki A. Oral Potassium Supplementation for Management of Essential Hypertension: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS One. 2017; 12(4): e0174967.
26. Cornelissen VA, Smart NA. Exercise Training for Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013; 2(1): e004473.
27. Roerecke M, Kaczorowski J, Tobe SW, Gmel G, Hasan OSM, Rehm J. The Effect of a Reduction in Alcohol Consumption on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Lancet Public Health. 2017; 2(2): e108–e20.
28. Lavie CJ, Laddu D, Arena R, Ortega FB, Alpert MA, Kushner RF. Healthy Weight and Obesity Prevention: JACC Health Promotion Series. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Sep 25; 72(13):1506-1531.
29. Marques A, Peralta M, Naia A, Loureiro N, de Matos MG. Prevalence of adult overweight and obesity in 20 European countries, 2014. Eur J Public Health. 2018 Apr 1;28(2):295-300.
30. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic: report of a WHO consultation. 2000.
31. Aune D, Sen A, Norat T, Janszky I, Romundstad P, Tonstad S, et al. Body Mass Index, Abdominal Fatness, and Heart Failure Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies. Circulation. 2016 Feb 16; 133(7):639-49.
32. Tremblay MS, Aubert S, Barnes JD, Saunders TJ, Carson V, Latimer-Cheung AE, et al. Sedentary Behavior Research Network (SBRN) – Terminology consensus project process and outcome. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2017;14(1):75.
33. WHO. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
34. Di Raimondo D, Musiari G, Giuliana Rizzo G, Antonino Tuttolomondo A, Antonio Pinto A. Effects of physical inactivity in cardiovascular biomarkers. J Lab Precis Med. 2020 Jul; 5:1-9.
35. Booth FW, Roberts CK, Laye MJ. Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases. Compr Physiol 2012; 2:1143-211.
36. Lavie CJ, O'Keefe JH, Sallis RE. Exercise and the heart --the harm of too little and too much. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2015;14:104-9.
37. Paley CA, Johnson MI. Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome: exercise as medicine? BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2018;10:7.
38. Wang Y, Xu D. Effects of aerobic exercise on lipids and lipoproteins. Lipids Health Dis. 2017;16:132.
39. Balducci S, Zanuso S, Cardelli P, et al. Effect of highversus low-intensity supervised aerobic and resistance training on modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes; the Italian Diabetes and Exercise Study (IDES). PLoS One. 2012;7:e49297.
40. Di Raimondo D, Miceli G, Casuccio A, et al. Does sympathetic overactivation feature all hypertensives? Differences of sympathovagal balance according to night/day blood pressure ratio in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertens Res 2016; 39:440-8.
41. Van der Vorm LN, Huskens D, Kicken CH, et al. Effects of Repeated Bouts of Exercise on the Hemostatic System. Semin Thromb Hemost 2018; 44:710-22.
42. Neelam N. S, Saina S, Senthil P, Prakash P. O. Burden of illness, risk factor and physical activity in cardiovascular disease- A review. Biomedicine [Internet]. 2023 Aug. 30; 43(4):1080-93.
43. Bucciarelli V, Mattioli AV, Sciomer S, Moscucci F, Renda G, Gallina S. The Impact of Physical Activity and Inactivity on Cardiovascular Risk across Women’s Lifespan: An Updated Review. J Clin Med. 2023; 12(13):4347.
44. Kim MK, Han K, Joung HN, Baek KH, Song KH, Kwon HS. Cholesterol levels and development of cardiovascular disease in Koreans with type 2 diabetes mellitus and without pre-existing cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2019 Oct 22;18(1):139.
45. Navarese EP, Robinson JG, Kowalewski M, Kolodziejczak M, Andreotti F, Bliden K, et al. Association Between Baseline LDL-C Level and Total and Cardiovascular Mortality After LDL-C Lowering: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA. 2018 Apr 17;319(15):1566-1579.
46. Zhang Y, Pletcher MJ, Vittinghoff E, Clemons AM, Jacobs DR Jr, Allen NB, et al. Association Between Cumulative Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Exposure During Young Adulthood and Middle Age and Risk of Cardiovascular Events. JAMA Cardiol. 2021 Dec 1;6(12):1406-1413.
47. Schade, D, Cavanaugh B, Ramo B, Eaton RP. "The application of the LDL principle. World J Cardiovasc Dis. 2016 Jan; 6(6)109-125.
48. Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS. A Systematic Review of the Evidence Supporting a Causal Link Between Dietary Factors and Coronary Heart Disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(7):659–669.
49. World Health Organization (WHO) Healthy Diet Factsheet No. 394, http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/nutrientrequirements/healthydiet_factsheet394.pdf.
50. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, Covas MI, Corella D, Arós F, et al. PREDIMED Study Investigators. Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts. N Engl J Med. 2018 Jun 21;378(25):e34.
51. Kondo T, Nakano Y, Adachi, S, Murohara, T. Effects of Tobacco Smoking on Cardiovascular Disease. Circ J. 2019; 83(10), 1980-1985.
52. Zaid M, Miura K, Okayama A, Nakagawa H, Sakata K, Saitoh S, et al. INTERLIPID and INTERMAP Research Groups. Associations of High-Density Lipoprotein Particle and High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol With Alcohol Intake, Smoking, and Body Mass Index - The INTERLIPID Study. Circ J. 2018 Sep 25; 82(10):2557-2565.
53. Hackshaw A, Morris JK, Boniface S, Tang JL, Milenković D. Low cigarette consumption and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: meta-analysis of 141 cohort studies in 55 study reports. BMJ. 2018 Jan 24; 360:j5855.
54. Jamison DT, Summers LH, Alleyne G, Arrow KJ, Berkley S, Binagwaho A, et al. Global health 2035: a world converging within a generation. Lancet. 2013 Dec 7; 382(9908):1898-955.
55. Fan W. Epidemiology in diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Endocrinol. 2017 Feb 15; 6(1):8-16.
56. Fox CS, Golden SH, Anderson C, Bray GA, Burke LE, De Boer IH, et al. Update on prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus in light of recent evidence a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Circulation 2015; 132:691–718.
57. Evert AB, Boucher JL, Cypress M, Dunbar SA, Franz MJ, Mayer-Davis EJ, et al. Nutrition therapy recommendations for the management of adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2014; 37.
58. Colberg SR, Sigal RJ, Yardley JE, Riddell MC, Dunstan DW, Dempsey PC, et al. Physical activity/exercise and diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2016; 39:2065–2079.
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2026/06/16
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